
Religious Painting
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Painting has always been associated with the life of the Church. From the time of the Catacombs it has been used in ecclesiastical ornamentation, and for centuries after Constantine, religious art was the only form of living art in the Christian world. Its fecundity has been wonderful and even now, although much diminished, is still important. Until the Renaissance the Church exercised a veritable monopoly over this sphere. Profane painting in Europe dates only from the last five centuries and it took the lead only in the nineteenth century. It may therefore be said that throughout the Christian Era the history of painting has been that of religious painting.
It would be absurd to seek to place the Church in contradiction to the Gospel on this point, as did the Iconoclasts in the eighth century and the Protestants in the sixteenth. The doctrine of the Church has been clearly enunciated by Molanus in his "Historia SS. Imaginum" (Louvain, 1568). It is truly remarkable that such a magnificent development of artistic thought should proceed from a purely spiritual doctrine preached by humble Galilean fishermen who were ignorant of art and filled with the horror of idolatry characteristic of the Semitic people. Far from reproaching the Church with infidelity to the teachings of her Founder, we should rather acknowledge her wisdom in rejecting no natural form of human activity and thus furthering the work of civilization.
The very fact that the Church permitted painting obliged her to assign it a definite object and to prescribe certain rules. Art never seemed to her an end in itself; as soon as she adopted it she made it a means of instruction and edification. "The picture", says the Patriarch Nicephorus , "conceals the strength of the Gospel under a coarser, but more expressive form." "The picture is to the illiterate", says Pope St. Gregory, "what the written word is to the educated." In like manner St. Basil : "What speech presents to the ear painting portrays by a mute imitation." And Peter Comestor says, in a famous text: "The paintings of the churches are in place of books to the uneducated" ( quasi libri laicorum ). "We are, by the grace of God, those who manifest to the faithful the miracles wrought by faith "—thus the painters of Siena express themselves in the statutes of their guild (1355). The same ideas are contained in the "Treatise on Painting" of Cennino Cennini, and in France in the "Livre des Métiers" of the Parisian Etienne Boileau (1254). In 1513, at the height of the Renaissance, Albrecht Dürer wrote: "The art of painting is used in the service of the Church to depict the sufferings of Christ and of many other models; it also preserves the countenances of men after their death." Almost the same definition is given by Pacheco, father-in-law of Velasquez, in his "Arte de la Pintura", printed at Seville in 1649.
The constant doctrine of the Church was defined at the Second Council of Nicaea (787), and is summed up in the often quoted formula: "The composition of the image is not the invention of the painters, but the result of the legislation and approved tradition of the Church " ("Synod Nicaea" II, Actio VI, 331, 832). It would be impossible to define more clearly the importance of art in the life of the Church, and at the same time its subordinate position. Thence, obviously, results one of the chief characteristics of religious painting, its conservative instinct and its tendency to hieratic formalism. Art being regarded as didactic, necessarily partook of the severe nature of dogma. The slightest error bordered on heresy. To alter anything in the garments of the saints or of the Blessed Virgin, to depict the former shod or the latter barefooted, to confuse the piety of the simple by innovations and individual whims, were all serious matters. The Christian artist was surrounded by a strict network of prohibitions and prescriptions. From this resulted the artistic danger of soulless, mechanical repetition, which religious painting did not always escape. The responsibility for this however, must not be merited to the Church, but rather to human slothfulness of mind, for, as a matter of fact, there is an element of mobility in art as it is understood by the Church. Religious art may be called a realistic art. Its appeal to the emotions by the representation of facts obliges it to be more and more exactly imitative, and it must adopt the progressive stages of technique to express all the phases of human feeling. Even the most immobile of the great Christian schools, the Byzantine, has only an apparent immobility; more intimate knowledge inspires increasing admiration for its vitality and elasticity. The innovating and creative faculty has never been denied to the religious painters. In the twelfth century Guillaume Durand, the famous Bishop of Mende, wrote in his "Rationale" (I, 3): "The various histories as well of the New as of the Old Testament are depicted according to the inclination of the painters. For to painters as to poets a license has ever been conceded to dare whatever they pleased."
I. THE CATACOMBS
The monuments of religious painting for the first four centuries are to be sought only at Rome (see CATACOMBS, ROMAN; ECCLESIASTICAL ART, ORIGIN). But this peculiar art must not be taken as typical of what was in vogue elsewhere. It is a great mistake to look in the Roman cemeteries for the origin or the cradle of Christian painting: an art which seems to have been fully developed by the end of the fifth entry grew up in Syria, Egypt, or Asia Minor, and completely supplanted that of the Catacombs. The latter did not survive the very special conditions under which it arose, and was but an isolated and local school without development or future, but none the less valuable, venerable, and pleasing.
II. BYZANTINE PAINTING A. The New Iconography
By the edict of 313 Christianity was recognized as the official religion of the Empire. The Church left its hiding places and breathed freely, and the period of the basilicas began. A profound transformation of religious painting was the result of this triumph. The time had come to display the insignia of Christ's victory with the same material splendour which the State attached to the imperial majesty of Caesar. The Good Shepherd of the Catacombs and the pastoral scenes gradually disappeared; the last traces of them are found in the rotunda of St. Constantia and in the mausoleum of Galla Placidia at Ravenna (c. 450). In the magnificent mosaic of S. Pudenziana at Rome (before 410), the Cross, which stands in mid-heaven above a Senate of Apostles wearing the laticlave, is already a symbol of triumph. Christ appears as a celestial imperator invested with awe-inspiring glory. "The arches of the world", writes Eusebius, "are His throne, the earth is His footstool. The celestial armies are His guard."—Thus formidably is the God of the Gospel portrayed on the porch of the ancient Vatican.
Rome still preserves the oldest remains of the new art, but the East has claims to priority. Such discoveries as those of M. Clédat in the necropolis of El Bagaout (fourth century) and in the convent of Baouit (sixth century), the excavations of Gayet in the tombs of Antinoe and the funeral portraits unearthed at Fayum form an accumulation of evidence which leaves no doubt on this point. To these may be added the famous miniatures of Cosmas Indicopleustes and of the "Roll of Joshua" (preserved at the Vatican ), the originals of which date from the sixth century, or those of the Mesopotamian Evangeliary, illustrated in 586 by the monk Rabula (Laurentian Library, Florence), and, although of somewhat later date, the paintings of the Evangeliaries of Etschmiadzin (Armenian, dated 989) and Rossano, reproduced from obviously earlier models, either Alexandrine or Syriac. These paintings are chiefly narrative and historical in character. The Church, having conquered paganism, must now face the task of supplying its place. And the Church quickly recognized in her own experience with paganism the efficacy of images as means of instruction. This is testified by a letter (end of the fourth century) from St. Nilus to the prefect Olympiodorus, who had built a church and wished to know if it were fitting that he should adorn it only with scenes of the chase and angling, with foliage, etc., having in view only the pleasure of the eye. St. Nilus replied that this was mere childish nonsense, that the fitting thing in the sanctuary was the image of the Cross, and on the walls scenes from the Old Testament and the Gospel, so that those who, being unable to read the Scriptures, might by these pictures be reminded of the beautiful deeds of the followers of the true God, and thereby impelled to do in like manner. Obviously, the holy anchorite here recommended genuine historical compositions. The Church. replacing the vast pagan repertory of legend and fable, created for the imagination a new basis, likewise derived from the past. At that date the best apology for the Church was the story of its life and its genealogy, and this was perseveringly set forth during the early centuries after Constantine. This historical tendency is clearly evident at St. Mary Major's in the forty mosaics, executed in the time of Pope Sixtus III (432-40), which relate the lives of the Patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and Joshua. Christ's victory and His glorious Advent also find expression in the "triumphal arches " of St. Paul's Without the Walls (under Leo I, 440-61) and of the Lateran (under Hilary I, 461-68).
But Rome, conquered by the hordes of Alaric, had fallen from her political rank, and henceforth the evolution of Byzantine painting must be followed at Ravenna and Constantinople.
B. Monumental Painting to the Iconoclastic ControversyRepresenting deeds rather than ideals, events rather than symbols, the Byzantine School endowed Christianity with a complete system of representation of all types, some of which are still used, and once for all formulated the essential traits of the great scenes of religious history. ( See BYZANTINE ART.)
In its early period Byzantine painting was strictly realistic. The mosaics, e.g., on either side of the choir of S. Vitale at Ravenna, show the Court of Justinian and Theodora sickly, dissolute figures—the men, coarse; the women, bleached and bedizened, overladen with jewels and dressed in the extreme of luxury unforgettable personifications of a corrupt and dazzling life. This care for documentary exactitude was applied also to the past: historic characters were treated as contemporary. The Christians of the first three centuries had been obliged to content themselves with conventional types, without individual character, for their figures of Christ; but here Byzantine art raised new questions. The Christological disputes of the time necessitated new dogmatic definitions. In painting a certain school, appealing to a text of Isaiah, maintained that Christ was hideous. In answer to these, appeal was made, in the fourth century, to the so-called "Letter of Lentulus to the Senate" . Christ, according to this document, had blue eyes and light hair falling smooth to His ears, then in curls over his shoulders. One recognizes here the desire to give to the figure of the Saviour a certain majestic beauty embodied in the stereotyped traits of a portrait which leases no room for the play of fancy.
The same process of determination went on at the same time for the principal characters of sacred history, for the Blessed Virgin, the Patriarchs, and the Apostles, and each of these pictorial types acquired the force of a law. The Council of 692, for example decreed that Christ should be represented as the Lamb. This scrupulosity extends to accessories and embellishments: at San Vitale, Ravenna, the "Hospitality of Abraham " has for its setting a vast verdant landscape; at San Apollinare Nuovo, the city of Classis and the palace of Theodoric are accurately represented. In Gospel scenes veritable reproductions of Jerusalem were aimed at. The care for exact representation was, at the same time, counteracted by the passion for grandeur and splendour of effect which dominated all Byzantine painting. The latter tendency arose partly from the exigencies of decorative work and the inexorable laws governing monumental style. Decoration implies work intended to be viewed from a distance, and therefore simple in outline and colossal in scale, reduced to absolute essentials strikingly displayed on a wall-surface. Hence certain conventions, the result of optical laws : few gestures, little action, no agitation or confusion. The countenances have an impassive and fixed expression, as the tragic actor, in the Greek theatre, assumed mask and cothurnus, and chanted the solemn lines to a recitative.
This theatrical and imposing style was, however, less artificial than might be supposed. It naturally ascribed to the personages of the sacred drama the ceremonious dignity of the Byzantine world, modelling the past or the present. One of the most marked effects of these ideas is the repugnance to representing suffering and death. At San Apollinare Nuovo, in the portrayal of the Passion, not Christ, but his executioner, carries His Cross. The artist reverently omits the scene on Calvary, and indeed Christian art for a long time observed the same reticence. But on the other hand there is the taste for noble composition the love of symmetry, the striving after grandiose and solemn effects. From these same ideals of pomp and grandeur resulted a type of expression in harmony with them, monumental painting in the more solid, more luxurious style of mosaic. This was already an ancient art, well known to the Alexandrians practised, also by the Romans, who used it chiefly for the pavements of their villas. But it was reserved for the Byzantines, who applied it to mural decoration to discover its true resources.
C. From the Iconoclast Controversy to the School of Mount AthosThe Iconoclast controversy (725-850) arrested the development of this powerful school at its height. The movement originated in Islam as a fierce outburst of the Semitic idealism of the desert. The Iconoclast emperors were by no means barbarians but enlightened princes dilettanti in their way, very often devotees and theologians ; such in particular were Leo the Isaurian and Theophilus. These emperors prided themselves on being worshippers "in spirit and in truth ", and proscribed art only in its " idolatrous ", or religious, applications. Feminine devotion in the end triumphed over these scruples. Meanwhile there had been wide devastation, the convents had suffered especially; and when the veneration of images was re-established, nearly all the churches had lost their ornaments, the mosaics had been torn down, and the frescoes whitewashed. As often happens, however, the Church came out of the conflict more vigorous than ever. A new Byzantine School, very different from the first, and a second golden age were to commence. The first Byzantine School was an historical one the second was wholly liturgical and didactic. Each decorative element assumed a symbolical value. Christ the king surrounded by the celestial hierarchy looks down from the vaults; in the sanctuary, behind the altar, reigns the Virgin seated, holding the Child in her lap as a figure of the Church, the "living throne of the Almighty", the rest of the apse presents the precursors of Christ, the bishops, doctors, and two great Eucharistic scenes the "Communion of the Apostles " and the "Divine Liturgy "; on the walls are developed the lives of the saints and martyrs and that of Christ. In the story of the Gospel the order of time is broken and from the mass of miracles a few great scenes are detached which the Church celebrates at the twelve principal feasts. Two essential ideas are brought into prominence: the Redemption and the Resurrection — the scene of Calvary and the Descent into Limbo. In the narthex, the Life of the Virgin assumes a new importance, while the Old Testament , on the contrary, tends to disappear.
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Four important monuments in the East mark the apogee of the new style, these are:
- St. Luke in Phocis,
- the Nea Moni of Chios,
- the beautiful church of Daphni near Athens and,
- in Russia, that of St. Sophia at Kiev.
A more important fact is that at this time the Byzantine style conquered the West and became truly universal. At about the same time the West was undergoing a singular upheaval: the old feudalism was separating itself from the soil and setting itself in motion. For two centuries the exodus of the Crusades was to continue, marking the beginning of a new civilization in Europe. Byzantine colonies appeared in Italy, notably those of Venice, in the North and of Sicily, in the South, forming hotbeds of Byzantism at the two ends of the Peninsula. Within thirty years (1063 - 95) Venice accomplished the marvel of St. Mark's which she was to go on decorating and perfecting for three centuries (the narthex is of the thirteenth century, the baptistery of the fourteenth century). In the neighbourhood of Venice there are examples at Torcello, Murano, and Trieste, while the twelfth century witnesses in Sicily, under the Norman princes the appearance of four incomparable churches: that of Martorana (1143), that of Cefalù (1148), the palace church at Palermo (c. 1160), and the Cathedral of Monreale (c. 1180). Of all these masterpieces St. Mark's is the best known. but only from the Pantocrator in the apse at Cefalù is it possible to realize to what beauties of nobility and melancholy, and to what majesty of style, the art attained.
For the sake of completeness, mention must be made of the numerous icons, the various types of the Madonna (Panagia, Nicopoeia, Hodegetria), of the miniature paintings in manuscripts which were important for the diffusion of motives, of enamels such as those in the Pala d'Oro of St. Mark's , and of the small portable mosaic pictures, like the valuable diptych preserved at the Opera del Duomo at Florence. The task of the Byzantine School was accomplished, but it did not at once disappear. In the fourteenth century it produced the fine mosaic cycle of Kahrie-djami and at the beginning of the fifteenth century, within the solitude of Athos, shut in by the Moslem world. it continued to produce and covered all Eastern Europe with countless paintings of the school of Panselinos. With the twelfth century, however, it had fulfilled its purpose, and the further development of religious painting was in the West.

III. RELIGIOUS PAINTING IN THE WEST, TO THE CINQUE CENTO A. North of the Alps
Through the medium of the monks and the Crusades all Europe was rendered fruitful by the Byzantine School. From the Byzantine a Western art was to develop, in which the loss in external luxury was gradually supplied by pliancy and power of expression. A distinction must here be made between the art of the countries north of the Alps, and that of the southern countries. Little need be said of the former: the Romanesque churches seem to have been very rich in paintings, but most of them are lost, and in the Gothic churches, which soon after began to be erected, there was little room for mural painting; stained glass took its place. But the personality of the artist was scarcely felt in this art, and as to drawing and subjects, stained glass is scarcely more than a reflection of miniature painting. Its study, therefore, has but a purely iconographic interest. It began in France with the windows of St-Denis (1140-44), and the school of St-Denis spread throughout the North, to Chartres (c. 1145), York, Le Mans (c. 1155), Angers, and Poitiers. During the following century the school of Notre-Dame-de-Paris played the same part.
The iconography of these windows is essentially symbolic, and the allegorical spirit of the Middle Ages is nowhere more apparent. It was an old Christian idea that each person and fact of the Old Testament was an image prefiguring a person of the New. This idea only expanded with full wealth of detail in the Gothic art of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. With wonderful subtlety of interpretation the attempt was made to discover the most unforeseen, and sometimes the oldest, relations. Books such as those of Rabanus Maurus , or the "Speculum ecclesia" of Honorius of Autun, or the "Glossa ordinaria" of Walafrid Strabo, must be read to obtain an idea of the spirit in which the Middle Age read its Bible and pictured it. In the "Bestiaries", too, which supplied material for this art, there is a fantastic natural history, a singular menagerie, each curiosity of which conceals some pious allegory. The material universe was transformed into a sort of vast psychomachia, an immense system of metaphors. No other school ever equalled this astounding idealism.
B. In Italy(1) Giotto and the Giottesques
After the fall of Rome and the Empire, Italy was for centuries in a most miserable condition. In the sixth and seventh centuries the Iconoclast reaction sent in the direction of Rome a host of Orientals, principally monks, who were the chief victims of the persecution. It is probably to these Greeks that we owe the frescoes, doubtless dating from the seventh century, which were discovered, in 1898, at Sta Maria Antiqua.
Under the influence of the great Abbot Desiderius the school of Monte Cassino assumed the leadership in an artistic movement which was to extend as far as Cluny. Some eleventh-century monuments, such as the church of S. Angelo in Formis, have preserved frescoes which attest the importance of this Benedictine school ; but its traces are to be found chiefly in miniatures, and especially in volumes of a particular kind, such as the "Exultet rolls" (see EXULTET ). This style spread throughout Italy in the twelfth century, but soon declined. In the churches and museums of Tuscany are to be found a great number of icons, madonnas and crucifixes, such as the miraculous Christ preserved at St. Clare of Assisi, and which is said to have spoken to St. Francis. These works show to what a depth of barbarism the Byzantine school had fallen about 1200. Nevertheless it was still capable of producing beautiful work. The Madonna of Guido of Siena, for instance, preserved in the Public Palace, and dated 1221 (not 1281, as according to Milanesi), proclaims a veritable renewal of the ancient formula, tempered by the grave and gentle Siennese mysticism. This is still more obvious in the works of the great Duccio, the Rucellai Madonna (1285) or the "Madonna Maesta" (1311).
Such was the persistency of the Byzantine movement at Siena, but a movement in another direction issued from Rome in the middle of the thirteenth century. Excavations have brought to light at S. Maria in Trastevere a cycle of very important frescoes of which Ghiberti, in his "Commentary" gives Pietro Cavallini as the author. The chief scene represents the Last Judgment. It is impossible to praise excessively the beauty of this composition, the nobility of the draperies, the majesty of the types. Ancient art undoubtedly exercised a powerful influence on Cavallini, as on his contemporary, the sculptor Nicholas of Pisa. In the thirteenth century a revival took place at Rome which foreshadowed the Renaissance of a later age. Unhappily, few of its monuments remain, but the mosaics of S. Maria in Trastevere that of St. Mary Major, by Jacopo Torriti (1296), an the Genesis frescoes of St. Paul Without the Walls known through drawings in a manuscript at the Vatican reveal the importance of this ancient Roman school. The same compositions are also found in the upper church at Assisi, which was to be the cradle of Italian painting. It is now proved that these scenes were the work of Cavallini and his school. There is nothing to prove that Cimabue did not work here, but he would have done so only as a pupil of the Roman school (see CIMABUE). This is also true of the great Giotto in his earliest dated works: the Navicella of St. Peter's (1298), the Stefaneschi retable and the Jubilee fresco painted in 1300 at St. John Lateran. It was otherwise with his second sojourn in Rome, for his early Assisi frescoes the 28 scenes of the "Life of St. Francis" (c. 1293) are wholly in the Roman manner. At Rome, therefore in the thirteenth century was created the giottesco style, the dolce stil nuovo which was to charm Italy for a hundred years. (See GIOTTO DI BONDONE.) Giotto instilled into the painting of age the wonderful poetry of Franciscan Christianity. St. Francis has been called the Father of Italian art and the saving is true if taken with a certain elasticity of meaning. Both he and St. Dominic rejuvenated and reanimated the Church. The history of religious art down to the Reformation and the Council of Trent could only be accurately written in the light of this great historic fact. All that Byzantine and early medieval art had represented as dogmas assumed the stirring character of life. To say that art became secularized would be to risk miscomprehension, but in truth, from being intellectual and theological, it became democratic and popular. Faith became visualized. The whole effort of the painters, as well as of the people, was to imagine as vividly as possible the life and sufferings of Christ . A multitude of dramatic elements developed in Christianity, and originated a sort of rudimentary theatre. (See ITALY, ITALIAN LITERATURE; JACOPONE DA TODI.)
All these characteristics began to show themselves in painting also. At Padua, in 1306, Giotto outlined the earliest and best formulated of his school in the "Life of the Virgin", closely linked with the history of the Passion. The painter retained only the pathetic elements of Christianity. A number of new scenes appeared, while the old ones were enriched with countless new features. The picture is filled with figures, gestures are softened, expression grows tender and human. " Giotto ", says Vasari, "was the first to put more kindness into his figures". During three centuries of development some scenes, such as the Nativity and the Epiphany, continued to grow in movement, expression, and picturesque effect. Symbolism and didactic intent are absent: painting ceases to have any object but to represent life. The teaching of Christ, the parables, and the sacraments disappear, to be replaced by scenes of sorrow and the drama of Calvary every moment of which is minutely treated in detail. What primitive Christian art avoided with a sort of modesty or fear now became its chosen and persistent subject. The striking feature of these pictures is a wholly new impression of familiarity and warmth.
After the great frescoes of the Life of St. Francis at Assisi a host of local saints and contemporary beati were honoured in like manner. In painting these contemporary lives the artists had to create traditions; therefore they painted what they saw—faces, costumes, assemblages of people. They became realists and observers. and these same tendencies appeared in their paintings of the Gospel. There was little need of invention: the theatre and its representations, the processions, and the tableaux vivants assisted their imagination. The following are some "Passions" of the Giottesque school, in chronological order:
- in the lower church of Assisi, by Pietro Lorenzetti (c. 1325);
- by Gerini, at S. Croce, Florence;
- by a Sienese master in the Neapolitan church of Donna Regina, or
- that by Andrea da Firenze (c. 1350) at the Spanish chapel ;
- lastly the splendid frescoes of Altichiero and Avanzi in the chapel of the Santo of Padua (1370).
But all this realism was never an end in itself: its object was to reach the emotions, and it made manifest the character of humanity in Christianity. Hence the many paintings of the Blessed Virgin, in which art incessantly sang to her the tenderest hymns of love. The Panagia of the Byzantines, the Virgin of the Middle Ages, Throne of God, Queen of Heaven, gave place to the Mother, the most beautiful, the sweetest, and the tenderest of women. After St. Bernard — il suo fedele Bernardo — St. Francis of Assisi , and St. Bonaventure, devotion to the Madonna became one of the chief Christian devotions. Schools competed as to which should paint the holiest and most exquisite Virgins, and none were more charming than those of Siena &151; Sena vetus civitas virginis .
The Madonnas of Simone di Martino , of the two Lorenzetti, of Lippo Memmi, and their successors began the incomparable poem to which Raphael, Van Dyck, or Murillo added perfect strophes, without, however, obliterating the memory of their ancient predecessors.
The same inspiration is evident in the paintings which represent the moral, didactic, or philosophic painting of that time, such as the frescoes of "Good and Evil Government" at Siena by the Lorenzetti (c. 1340), those of the Church militant and the Church teaching in the Spanish Chapel (c. 1355), or those of the "Anchorites" and the "Triumph of Death" in the Campo Santo of Pisa (c. 1370), all showing the same popular and practical character. Such pictures have the force of a sermon ; there is no strictly artistic intention, but an obvious intention to instruct and impress.
This is also made clear by the celebrated allegories of the Franciscan Virtues, in the lower church of Assisi (c. 1335) and in the frequent repetition of the Last Judgment (by Giotto at Padua and the Florence Signoria; by Orcagna at S. Maria Novella, etc.). This theme of death and the Judgment was evidently a favourite one with the Mendicants: at Assisi and Padua are two frescoes representing a Friar Minor indicating a skeleton beside him. And hence the "Triumph of Death" at Pisa and the terrible "Dance of Death" of northern Europe.
This popular art required popular modes of expression. Cavallini and Giotto still made mosaics, and Cimabue is best known to us as a mosaicist. But this slow and expensive method was unsuited to a democratic, sentimental, and impassioned art, while fresco, which had never been abandoned even during the Byzantine period, offered to the new ideas a more plastic and animated mode of expression. With less material opulence, the latter process was rapid, cheap and apt at reproducing the undulations of life, expressing at once the exactness of nature and the emotion of the artist. Thereby a new element entered into the execution itself, an individual element of sentiment and spontaneity only limited by the conditions of mural painting and the exigencies of an art always somewhat oratorical. Inebriated, as it were, with this new liberty, the Giottesque painters covered Italy with innumerable paintings. Indeed, this school, as a whole, despite grave faults, constitutes the richest and freest fund of religious painting.
(2) Masaccio and His Age
But it must be acknowledged that the Giottesques formed a popular school which was too often satisfied with worthless improvisation. The task of imbuing painting with artistic feeling was that of the two great painters, Masolino and Masaccio, the latter especially, in his frescoes in the Carmelite chapel at Florence (1426) sounding the keynote of the future. Nevertheless, despite their seriousness of conception and aim, the religious element of these frescoes is scarcely to be taken into account. There are evidences of great progress in the art, the nobility of ideas, the elevation of style, the seriousness and grandeur of the work, but the gain of Christian feeling and piety is less manifest. But, Masaccio's powerful naturalness was for a time in harmony with the mystic sense, and religious art then yielded perhaps its most exquisite flowers. The works of Gentile da Fabriano , such as the "Adoration of the Magi" (1423; Academy of Florence), those of Pisanello, such as the "Legend of St. George" (c. 1425; St. Anastasia , Verona ), and in a lesser degree those of the Milanese Stefano da Zevio breathe the inimitable grace of a pure and holy joy, which is still more charmingly apparent in the works of the Camaldolese Lorenzo Monaco, and especially in those of the Dominican Fra Giovanni da Fiesole, whose genius won for him the surname of Angelico.
Angelico's disciples did not reach his level, but a youthful charm distinguishes the spiritual paintings of Benozzo Gozzoli, whose "Adoration of the Magi" in the Riccardi chapel is one of the most perfect works of the Renaissance. while his "Genesis" frescoes in the Campo Santo of Pisa (1469-85) will always be loved for their exquisite figures amid rich landscapes. But perhaps this pious joy never inspired anything more lovable than the works of the old Umbrian masters Ottaviano Nelli, Allegretto Nuzi, Domenico Bonfigli, and Boccati da Camerino. The early Renaissance was a fortunate period, in which the simplicity of the soul was not marred by the discovery of nature and art. Even the poor Carmelite, Fra Filippo Lippi , unwilling monk as he was, whose restless life was far from exemplary, was animated by true and delicate piety. His "Nativity" (Berlin), his "Madonna" (Uffizi), and his "Adoration of the Holy Child" (c. 1465, Louvre) recall Angelico.
C. The Fifteenth Century in the NorthWhat Masaccio's frescoes were for fifteenth-century Italy, that and much more was the retable of the Van Eycks for the rest of Europe. This colossal work was begun in 1420, completed and set up in 1432. Throughout the fifteenth century the art of the schools of the North retained the allegorical and symbolical character which marks this great work. Such books as the "Speculum humanae salvationis" or the "Biblia pauperum" dominated iconography and furnished artists with their favourite subjects. But, with all this, in Flanders naturalism was unrestrained, that of the van Eycks making even Masaccio's seem vague and abstract. A portion of the change accomplished by them is foreshadowed in the works of the Limbourgs (see LIMBOURG, POL DE). To the revolution which they effected in the manner of beholding corresponds another in the manner of painting. The whole fifteenth century spoke of the "invention of the van Eycks ": it is hard to say in what this consisted, but if they did not, as was believed, discover oil-painting. they certainly invented new processes and a new style. Undoubtedly this realism lacked taste and charm. The types were common, vulgar and middle-class, and these faults were even exaggerated by the disciples of the school &151; Jean Daret, Ouwater, Dirck Bouts, Van der Goes, and Petrus Cristus. The school's photographic impassability, on the other hand, was suddenly offset by the equally exaggerated and somewhat contorted passion of the Brabançon Van der Weyden, at once a realist and a mystic. Such as it was, this robust, school conquered Europe in a few wears, even Italy feeling its powerful influence. In France, Simon Marmion, Nicolas Fremont, and Jean Fouquet were little more than somewhat refined and gallicized Flemings. In Spain it suffices to mention Luis Dalmaù and in Portugal, Nuño Gonçalez, both being pure Flemish.
German painting, on the other hand, while it owed much to the neighbouring; Flemish school, remained much more original in spirit. In it is found the deep and tender sentiment lacking in the school of the Low Countries, a popular mysticism derived, not from books, but from the interior treasures of the soul. The school which produced (c. 1380) the Clarenaltar of Cologne and (c. 1400) the delightful little "Paradise" of Frankfort obviously possessed but mediocre gifts; its sense of form Bas often defective, but even the piety of Angelico did not speak a purer language. A superior plastic education produced the work of Stephan Lochner, the fine Dombild (1430), the "Madonna of the Violet", and the marvellously sweet "Madonna of the Rose Garden". From this school was descended the most famous of the Northern mystics, the tender and graceful Memling. In his work a new aristocracy, that of sentiment, transfigures the Flemish opulence. The same moral delicacy and familiarity with Divine things sweeten and spiritualize the works of Gerard David, and especially of Quentin Massys, who became a painter through love. At the end of the fifteenth century there was no German town or province which had not its local school. For a long time only two of these were known or regarded: that of Cologne, with its anonymous masters, the Master of the Passion of Lyversberg, the Master of the Death of Mary, the Master of the Holy Family ( Heiligensippe ) and, most powerful of all the Master of the Bartholomäusaltar ; and the school of Nuremberg, with its two famous painters, Wohlgemuth and Pleydenwurff. But in reality no corner of Franconia, Suabia, Alsace, or the Tyrol remained sterile. It was a popular art, localized sentiments and extremely incorrect, often coarse in form, but refined in soul even to affectation, and which in its pious imagery expressed better than any other certain ideas of sympathy and tenderness. There is nothing more thrilling than the Passion of Hans Multescher nor more appealing than the altarpiece of St. Wolfgang by the Tyrolese Michel Pacher. Elsewhere in Germany there were other admirable stylists, such as Hans Baldung and Conrad Witz at Fribourg and Basle, foreshadowing the perfection of Holbein.
But the great Albrecht Dürer was to express all that was most intimate in Germanic religion, and beautiful as were his pictures he expressed the deepest meanings in his prints. This more direct and less expensive art produced for the masses, satisfied the German demands for popularity and individuality. To this Dürer's genius was wholly devoted, and art does not possess more moving masterpieces than the "Apocalypse" series (1498), the "Life of the Blessed Virgin" (1506), the "Little Passion" (1509), and the Great Passion" (1510). But side by side with this contemplative, intimate, and noble spiritual art was a second tendency, no less thoughtfully but impassioned, violent, dramatic, and which went to extremes in the search for expression and the mania for the pathetic. It was inspired by the mystery plays. All technical progress and perfection of realization were utilized to express emotion. It began with Van der Weyden, Memling did not escape it in his Munich picture of the "Seven Sorrows of the Blessed Virgin", Massys painted blood-besprinkled Holy Faces and Magdalens with reddened and streaming eyes, Dürer's "Passions" terrify by their intensity of sorrow, but the most tragic of all was Mathias Griünewald, whose terrible "Crucifixions" at Colmar and Stuttgart are like the nightmare of a barbarian visionary. This love of the horrible became a genre. Infernal fantasies, the dreams of an unhealthy imagination, haunt the thoughts of Jerome Bosch, while, on the other hand, idyllic insipidity and childishness appear in the "Holy Family" and "Flight into Egypt " of Cranach and Patenier. At this juncture came the Reformation, which destroyed painting in Germany.
IV. THE CINQUECENTO AND THE LATER SCHOOLS A. Tuscany, Umbria, and Rome
The two tendencies observed in the North, naturalism and pathos, developed also in contemporary Italy. Protestant criticism has greatly exaggerated the irreligion of the Renaissance. Undoubtedly some painters, absorbed by problems of expression and the study of atmosphere, models, and perspective, neglected religious emotions. At Florence especially there mere a number of artists who saw in their craft only a question of form. Form, as a matter of fact, owes much of its progress to the studies of Castagno,
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Râle, SebastianSebastian Rale (Rasle)Missionary, martyr, b. at Pontarlier, Diocese of Besançoison, 20 Jan., 1654 (?); shot by ... |
Räss, AndreasAndreas RassBishop of Strasburg, b. at Sigolsheim in upper Alsace, 6 April, 1794; d. at Strasburg, 17 ... |
Régis, Jean-BaptisteJean-Baptiste RegisBorn at Istres, Provence, 11 June, 1663, or 29 Jan., 1664; died at Peking, 24 Nov., 1738. He was ... |
Régis, Pierre SylvainPierre Sylvain RegisBorn at La Salvetat de Blanquefort, near Agen, in 1632; died in Paris, in 1707. After his ... |
Rabanus, Blessed Maurus MagnentiusBlessed Maurus Magnentius Rabanus( Also Hrabanus, Reabanus). Abbot of Fulda, Archbishop of Mainz, celebrated theological ... |
Rabbi and RabbinismRabbi and RabbinismThe special condition which prevailed in Palestine after the Restoration led to the gradually ... |
RabbulasRabbulasBishop of Edessa and, in the later years of his life, one of the foremost opponents of ... |
Rabelais, FrançoisFrancois RabelaisThe life of this celebrated French writer is full of obscurities. He was born at Chinon in ... |
RaccoltaRaccolta( Italian "a collection") A book containing prayers and pious exercises to which the popes ... |
Race, HumanHuman RaceMankind exhibits differences which have been variously interpreted. Some consider them so great ... |
Race, NegroNegro RaceThe term negro , derived from the Spanish and the Latin words meaning "black" ( negro; niger ... |
RachelRachelRachel ("a ewe"), daughter of Laban and younger sister of Lia. The journey of Jacob to the ... |
Racine, JeanJean RacineDramatist, b. a La Ferté-Milon, in the old Duchy of Valois, 20 Dec., 1639; d. in Paris, ... |
Rader, MatthewMatthew RaderPhilologist and historian, born at Innichen in the Tyrol in 1561; died at Munich, 22 December, ... |
Radewyns, FlorensFlorens RadewynsCo-founder of the Brethren of the Common Life , b. at Leyderdam, near Utrecht, about 1350; d. at ... |
Radowitz, Joseph Maria vonJoseph Maria von RadowitzBorn at Blankenburg, 6 February, 1797; died at Berlin, 25 December, 1853. Radowitz was of ... |
Radulph of RivoRadulph of Rivo(or OF TONGRES; RADULPH VAN DER BEEKE) An historian and liturgist, born at Breda, in Dutch ... |
Raffeix, PierrePierre RaffeixMissionary, born at Clermont, 1633; died at Quebec, 1724. He entered the Society of Jesus in ... |
Ragueneau, PaulPaul RagueneauJesuit missionary, b. in Paris, 18 March, 1608; d. 8 Sept., 1680. He entered the Society in ... |
RagusaRagusaDIOCESE OF RAGUSA (EPIDAURUS; RAGUSINA). A bishopric in Dalmatia, suffragan of Zara. The ... |
Raich, Johann MichaelJohann Michael RaichCatholic theologian, born at Ottobeuren in Bavaria, 17 January, 1832; died at Mainz, 28 March, ... |
Rail, AltarAltar RailThe railing which guards the sanctuary and separates the latter from the body of the church. It ... |
Raimondi, MarcantonioMarcantonio RaimondiEngraver, b. at Bologna, 1475 (1480?); d. there, 1530 (1534?). He studied under the goldsmith and ... |
Rainald of DasselRainald of DasselBorn probably not before 1115; died in Italy, 14 August, 1167. A younger son of a rich Saxon ... |
RajpootanaRajpootanaPrefecture Apostolic in India, attached to the Province of Agra, comprises approximately the ... |
Ralph Crockett, VenerableVen. Ralph CrockettEnglish martyr, b. at Barton, near Farndon, Cheshire; executed at Chichester, 1 October, 1588. ... |
Ralph Milner, VenerableVenerable Ralph MilnerLayman and martyr, born at Flacsted, Hants, England, early in the sixteenth century; suffered ... |
Ralph Sherwin, BlessedBl. Ralph SherwinEnglish martyr, born 1550 at Rodesley, near Longford, Derbyshire; died at Tyburn, 1 December, ... |
Ram, Pierre François Xavier dePierre Francois Xavier de RamBorn at Louvain 2 Sept., 1804; died there 14 May, 1865; Belgian historian and rector of the ... |
RamathaRamathaA titular see in Palestine, suppressed in 1884 by the Roman Curia . It was never an episcopal ... |
Rambler, TheThe RamblerA Catholic periodical (not of course to be confused with the older "Rambler", published a ... |
Rameau, Jean-PhilippeJean-Philippe RameauMusician, b. at Dijon, Burgundy, 25 Sept., 1683; d. at Paris, 12 Sept., 1764. His father, ... |
Ramsey AbbeyRamsey AbbeyRamsey Abbey, Huntingdonshire, England, was founded by Ailwine (Ethelwine, Egelwine), a Saxon ... |
Ramus, PeterPeter Ramus(PIERRE DE LA RAMÉE) Humanist and logician, b. at Cuth in Picardy, 1515; d. in Paris, ... |
Rancé, Jean-Armand le Bouthillier deJean-Armand Le Bouthillier de RanceAbbot and reformer of Notre Dame de la Trappe, second son of Denis Bouthillier, Lord of ... |
Randall, James RyderJames Ryder RandallJournalist and poet, b. 1 Jan., 1839, at Baltimore, Maryland ; d. 15 Jan., 1908 at Augusta, ... |
Ransom, Feast of Our Lady ofFeast of Our Lady of Ransom24 September, a double major, commemorates the foundation of the Mercedarians. On 10 August, ... |
RaphaelRaphael (1483-1520)The most famous name in the history of painting, b. at Urbino, 6 April (or 28 March), 1483; d. at ... |
Raphael, SaintSt. Raphael the ArchangelThe name of this archangel ( Raphael = " God has healed") does not appear in the Hebrew ... |
RaphoeRaphoeDiocese of Raphoe (Rapotensis) Comprises the greater part of the Co. Donegal (Gael. Tirconail ... |
Rapin, RenéRene RapinFrench Jesuit, born at Tours, 1621; died in Paris, 1687. He entered the Society in 1639, taught ... |
RaskolniksRaskolniks(Russian raskolnik , a schismatic, a dissenter; from raskol , schism, splitting; that in ... |
Rathborne, JosephJoseph RathbornePriest and controversialist (sometimes erroneously called RATHBONE), born at Lincoln, 11 May, ... |
Ratherius of VeronaRatherius of VeronaHe was born about 887; died at Namur 25 April, 974. He belonged to a noble family which lived in ... |
Ratio StudiorumRatio StudiorumThe term "Ratio Studiorum" is commonly used to designate the educational system of the Jesuits ; ... |
RationaleRationaleRational, an episcopal humeral, a counterpart of the pallium, and like it worn over the chasuble. ... |
RationalismRationalism(Latin, ratio -- reason, the faculty of the mind which forms the ground of calculation, i.e. ... |
RatisbonRatisbonDIOCESE OF RATISBON (RATISBONENSIS), also called REGENSBURG. Suffragan of Munich-Freising. It ... |
Ratisbonne, Maria AlphonseMaria Alphonse RatisbonneA converted Jew, born at Strasburg on 1 May, 1814; died at Ain Karim near Jerusalem, on 6 May, ... |
Ratisbonne, Maria TheodorMaria Theodor RatisbonneA distinguished preacher and writer, and director of the Archconfraternity of Christian Mothers, ... |
RatramnusRatramnus(Rathramnus) A Benedictine monk at the Abbey of Corbie, in the present Department of Somme, ... |
Ratzeburg, Ancient See ofRatzeburg(RACEBURGUM, RACEBURGENSIS.) In Germany, suffragan to Hamburg. The diocese embraced the ... |
Ratzinger, GeorgGeorg RatzingerPolitical economist and social reformer, b. at Rickering, near Deggendorf, in lower Bavaria, 3 ... |
RauscherJoseph Othmar RauscherPrince- Archbishop of Vienna, born at Vienna, 6 Oct., 1797; died there 24 Nov., 1875. He ... |
Ravalli, AntonioAntonio RavalliMissionary, b. in Italy, 1811; d. at St. Mary's, Montana, U. S. A., 2 Oct., 1884. He entered ... |
RavennaRavennaArchdiocese of Ravenna (Ravennatensis) The city of Ravenna is the capital of a province in ... |
Ravesteyn, JosseJosse RavesteynBorn about 1506, at Tielt, a small town in Flanders, hence often called T ILETANUS (J ODACUS ... |
Ravignan, Gustave Xavier Lacroix deGustave Xavier Lacroix de RavignanFrench Jesuit, orator, and author, b. at Bayonne (Basses-Pyrénées), 1 Dec. 1795; ... |
Rawes, Henry AugustusHenry Augustus RawesOblate of St. Charles, hymn-writer and preacher, b. at Easington near Durham, England, 11 Dec., ... |
Raymbault, CharlesCharles RaymbaultMissionary, b. in France, 1602; entered the Society of Jesus at Rouen (1621); d. at Quebec, ... |
Raymond IV, of Saint-GillesRaymond IVCount of Toulouse and of Tripoli, b. about 1043; d. at Tripoli in 1105. He was the son of ... |
Raymond LullyRaymond Lully(RAMON LULL) "Doctor Illuminatus", philosopher, poet, and theologian, b. at Palma in Majorca, ... |
Raymond MartiniRaymond MartiniDominican, theologian, Orientalist, b. at Subirats, Catalonia, c. 1220; d. after July, 1284. In ... |
Raymond Nonnatus, SaintSt. Raymond Nonnatus(In Spanish SAN RAMON). Born 1200 or 1204 at Portello in the Diocese of Urgel in Catalonia ... |
Raymond of Peñafort, SaintSt. Raymond of PenafortBorn at Villafranca de Benadis, near Barcelona, in 1175; died at Barcelona, 6 January, 1275. He ... |
Raymond of SabundeRaymond of Sabunde(SABONDE, SEBON, SEBEYDE, etc.) Born at Barcelona, Spain, towards the end of the fourteenth ... |
Raymond VIRaymond VICount of Toulouse, b. 1156; d. 1222; succeeded his father, Raymond V, in 1195. He was a ... |
Raymond VIIRaymond VIICount of Toulouse, son of Raymond VI, b. at Beaucaire, 1197; d. at Milhaud, 1249; had espoused a ... |
Raynaldi, OdoricoOdorico RaynaldiOratorian, b. at Treviso in 1595; d. at Rome, 22 January, 1671. Of patrician birth, he studied ... |
Raynaud, ThéophileTheophile RaynaudTheologian and writer, b. at Sospello near Nice, 15 Nov., 1583; d. at Lyons, 31 Oct., 1663. He ... |
Raynouard, Françpois-Juste-MarieFrancois-Juste-Marie RaynouardA French poet, dramatist, and philologist, b. at Brignoles, Var, 8 September, 1761; d. at Passy, ... |
Reading AbbeyReading AbbeyReading Abbey in Surrey, England, was founded by Henry I in 1121, who built it, writes ... |
Real Presence of Christ in the EucharistThe Real Presence of Christ in the EucharistIn this article we shall consider: the fact of the Real Presence , which is, indeed, the central ... |
Realism, Nominalism, ConceptualismNominalism, Realism, ConceptualismThese terms are used to designate the theories that have been proposed as solutions of one of the ... |
ReasonReasonGENERAL MEANINGS Both in ordinary life and in philosophical discussions the term reason is of ... |
Reason, Age ofAge of ReasonThe name given to that period of human life at which persons are deemed to begin to be morally ... |
Recanati and LoretoRecanati and LoretoDIOCESE OF RECANATI AND LORETO (RECINETENSIS) Province of Ancona, Central Italy, so called ... |
Rechab and the RechabitesRechab and the RechabitesRechab was the father of Jonadab who in 2 Kings 10:15-28 , appears as a fervent supporter of ... |
RecollectionRecollectionRecollection, as understood in respect to the spiritual life, means attention to the presence of ... |
Reconciliation, Sacrament ofThe Sacrament of PenancePenance is a sacrament of the New Law instituted by Christ in which forgiveness of sins ... |
RectorRector(From the Latin regere , to rule). Priests who preside over missions or quasi- parishes ... |
Rector Potens, Verax DeusRector Potens, Verax DeusThe daily hymn for Sext in the Roman Breviary finds its theme in the great heat and light of ... |
Recusants, EnglishEnglish RecusantsThe first statute in which the term "Popish Recusants" is used is 35 Eliz. c. 2, "An Act for ... |
Red SeaRed Sea(Hebrew Yâm-Sûph; Septuagint ‘e ’eruthrà thálassa; ... |
Redeemer, Feast of the Most HolyFeast of the Most Holy RedeemerThe feast is found only in the special calendar of some dioceses and religious orders, and ... |
Redeemer, Knights of theKnights of the RedeemerA secular community founded in 1608 by the Duke of Mentone, Vincent Gonzaga, on the occasion of ... |
RedemptionRedemptionThe restoration of man from the bondage of sin to the liberty of the children of God ... |
Redemption in the Old TestamentRedemption in the Old TestamentRedemption means either strictly deliverance by payment of a price or ransom, or simply ... |
Redemptions, PenitentialPenitential RedemptionsPenitential redemptions are the substitution of exercises (especially alms-deeds), either easier ... |
RedemptoristinesRedemptoristinesThe cradle of the Redemptoristines is Scala, not far from Amalfi, Italy. Father Thomas Falcoia, of ... |
RedemptoristsRedemptorists(CONGREGATION OF THE MOST HOLY REDEEMER) A society of missionary priests founded by St. ... |
Redford, SebastionSebastian RedfordBorn 27 April, 1701; died 2 January, 1763. Educated at St. Omer , Watten, and Liège, ... |
Redi, FrancescoFrancesco RediItalian poet, b. at Arezzo, 18 February, 1626; d. at Pisa 1 March, 1698. After taking his ... |
Reding, AugustineAugustine RedingPrince-Abbot of Einsiedeln and theological writer, born at Lichtensteig, Switzerland, 10 ... |
Reductions of ParaguayReductions of ParaguayThe Jesuit Reductions of Paraguay, one of the most singular and beautiful creations of Catholic ... |
ReferendariiReferendariiThe papal office of the referendarii (from refero , to inform) existed at the Byzantine ... |
Reform of a Religious OrderReform of a Religious OrderReform of a Religious Order, in the true sense of the word, is a return or bringing back of the ... |
Reformation, TheThe ReformationThe usual term for the religious movement which made its appearance in Western Europe in the ... |
Reformed ChurchesReformed ChurchesThe name given to Protestant bodies which adopted the tenets of Zwingli and, later, the ... |
Refuge, Cities ofCities of RefugeTowns which according to the Jewish law enjoyed the right of asylum and to which anyone who had ... |
Refuge, Sisters of Our Lady of Charity of theSisters of Our Lady of Charity of the RefugeThe Institute of Our Lady of Charity was founded (1641) by [St. Jean] Eudes, at Caen, Normandy, ... |
Regale, Droit deDroit de Regale( jus regaliœ, jus regale, jus deportus; German Regalienrecht ) Droit de Regale ... |
RegaliaRegaliaAccording to the usage current in the British Isles the term regalia is almost always employed to ... |
RegenerationRegeneration(Latin regeneratio ; Greek anagennesis and paliggenesia ). Regeneration is a ... |
RegensburgRatisbonDIOCESE OF RATISBON (RATISBONENSIS), also called REGENSBURG. Suffragan of Munich-Freising. It ... |
Regesta, PapalPapal RegestaPapal Regesta are the copies, generally entered in special registry volumes, of the papal ... |
Reggio dell' EmiliaReggio Dell' EmiliaDIOCESE OF REGGIO DELL' EMILIA (REGINENSIS) Suffragan of Modena in central Italy. The city is ... |
Reggio di CalabriaReggio di CalabriaARCHDIOCESE OF REGGIO DI CALABRIA (RHEGIENSIS). Archdiocese in Calabria, southern Italy. The ... |
ReginaReginaDIOCESE OF REGINA (REGINENSIS) A newly created (4 March, 1910) ecclesiastical division, ... |
Regina CoeliRegina Coeli (Queen of Heaven)The opening words of the Eastertide anthem of the Blessed Virgin, the recitation of which is ... |
Reginald of PipernoReginald of PipernoDominican, theologian, companion of St. Thomas Aquinas, b. at Piperno about 1230; d. about 1290. ... |
Regino of PrümRegino of PrumDate of birth unknown; d. at Trier in 915. According to the statements of a later era Regino was ... |
RegionariiRegionariiThe name given in later antiquity and the early Middle Ages to those clerics and officials of ... |
Regis, John Francis, SaintSt. John Francis RegisBorn 31 January, 1597, in the village of Fontcouverte (department of Aude); died at la Louvesc, 30 ... |
Registers, ParochialParochial RegistersOne having the cure of souls is commanded by Divine precept to know his subjects (Conc. Trid., ... |
Regnault, Henri VictorHenri Victor RegnaultChemist and physicist, b. at Aachen, 21 July, 1810; d. in Paris, 19 Jan., 1878. Being left an ... |
Regulæ JurisRegulae Juris("Rules of Law") General rules or principles serving chiefly for the interpretation of laws. ... |
RegularsRegulars( Latin regula, rule). The observance of the Rule of St. Benedict procured for the monks ... |
ReichenauReichenauReichenau, called Augia Dives in medieval Latin manuscripts and possessing a once ... |
Reichensperger, AugustAugust ReichensbergerPolitician and author, born at Coblenz, 22 March, 1808; died at Cologne, 16 July, 1895. He studied ... |
Reichensperger, PeterPeter ReichensbergerJurist and parliamentarian, b. at Coblenz, 28 May, 1810; d. at Berlin, 31 December, 1892. He ... |
ReifensteinReifensteinA former Cistercian abbey in Eichsfeld, founded on 1 August, 1162 by Count Ernst of Tonna. It ... |
Reiffenstuel, Johann GeorgJohann Georg ReiffenstuelIn religion A NACLETUS Theologian and canonist; b. at Kaltenbrunn (Tegernsee) 2 July, 1641; d. ... |
ReimsReimsARCHDIOCESE OF REIMS (RHEMENSIS) The Archdiocese of Reims comprises the district of Reims in ... |
Reims, Synods ofSynods of ReimsThe first synod said to have been held at Reims by Archbishop Sonnatius between 624 and 630 ... |
Reinmar of HagenauReinmar of HagenauA German minnesinger of the twelfth century, surnamed in the manuscripts der Alte (the old) to ... |
Reisach, Carl vonCarl von ReisachBorn at Roth, Bavaria, 7 July, 1800; died in the Redemptorist monastery of Contamine, France, ... |
Reisch, GregorGregor ReischBorn at Balingen in Wurtemberg, about 1467; died at Freiburg, Baden, 9 May, 1525. In 1487 he ... |
RelationshipRelationship(CARNAL AND SPIRITUAL) The theologians understand by relationship in general a certain ... |
Relatives, Duties ofDuties of RelativesThe general precept of charity obliging us to love our neighbour as ourselves is of course ... |
RelativismRelativismAny doctrine which denies, universally or in regard to some restricted sphere of being, the ... |
RelicsRelicsThe word relics comes from the Latin reliquiae (the counterpart of the Greek leipsana ) ... |
ReligionReligionI. Derivation, Analysis, and Definition. II. Subjective Religion. III. Objective ... |
Religion, Virtue ofVirtue of ReligionOf the three proposed derivations of the word "religion", that suggested by Lactantius and ... |
Religions, Statistics ofStatistics of ReligionsI. DEFINITION This study concerns itself with religious bodies, the number of their members, and ... |
Religious LifeReligious LifeI. GENERAL VIEW AND EVANGELICAL IDEA OF THE RELIGIOUS LIFE A. GENERAL VIEW We all have within us ... |
Religious ProfessionReligious ProfessionHISTORICAL VIEW Profession may be considered either as a declaration openly made, or as a state ... |
ReliquariesReliquariesIt would follow of necessity from the data given in the article RELICS that ... |
RemesianaRemesianaA titular see in Dacia Mediterranea, suffragan of Sardica. Remesiana is mentioned by the ... |
Remigius of AuxerreRemigius of AuxerreA Benedictine monk, b. about the middle of the ninth century; d. 908. Remigius, or Remi, was a ... |
Remigius, SaintSaint RemigiusApostle of the Franks, Archbishop of Reims, b. at Cerny or Laon, 437; d. at Reims, 13 January ... |
RemiremontRemiremontVosges, France, monastery and nunnery of the Rule of St. Benedict, founded by Sts. Romaricus ... |
Remuzat, Ven. Anne-MadeleineAnne-Madeleine RemuzatBorn at Marseilles, 29 Nov., 1696; died 15 Feb., 1730. At nine years of age she asked her parents ... |
Remy, Abbey of SaintAbbey of Saint RemyFounded at Reims before 590. Its early history is very obscure; at first a little chapel ... |
Renaissance, TheThe RenaissanceThe Renaissance may be considered in a general or a particular sense, as (1) the achievements of ... |
Renaudot, EusebiusEusebius RenaudotAn apologetical writer and Orientalist, b. at Paris, 22 July, 1648; d. there, 1 Sept., 1720. He ... |
Renaudot, ThéophrasteTheophraste RenaudotBorn at Loudun, 1586; died at Paris, 25 October, 1653. Doctor of the medical faculty at ... |
Reni, GuidoGuido ReniItalian painter, b. at Calvenzano near Bologna, 4 Nov., 1575; d. at Bologna, 18 Aug. 1642. At one ... |
RennesRennes(RHEDONENSIS) Rennes includes the Department of Ille et Vilaine. The Concordat of 1802 ... |
Renty, Gaston Jean Baptiste deGaston Jean Baptiste de RentyBorn 1611 at the castle of Beni, Diocese of Bayeux in Normandy ; died 24 April, 1649. The only ... |
RenunciationRenunciation( Latin renuntiare ). A canonical term signifying the resignation of an ecclesiastical ... |
ReordinationsReordinationsI. STATE OF THE QUESTION The Oratorian Jean Morin , in the seventeenth century, and Cardinal ... |
ReparationReparationReparation is a theological concept closely connected with those of atonement and satisfaction, ... |
Repington, PhilipPhilip Repington( Also Repyngdon). Cardinal-priest of the title of SS. Nereus and Achilleus, Bishop of ... |
Repose, Altar ofAltar of Repose(Sometimes called less properly sepulchre or tomb, more frequently repository). The altar ... |
Reputation (as Property)Reputation (As Property)It is certain that a man is indefeasibly the owner of what he has been able to produce by his ... |
Requiem, Masses ofRequiem MassesMasses of Requiem will be treated under the following heads: I. Origins; II. Formulary ; III. ... |
Rerum Crerator OptimeRerum Creator OptimeThe hymn for Matins of Wednesday in the Divine Office. It comprises four strophes of four ... |
Rerum Deus Tenax VigorRerum Deus Tenax VigorThe daily hymn for None in the Roman Breviary, comprises (like the hymns for Terce and Sext ... |
Rerum NovarumRerum NovarumThe opening words and the title of the Encyclical issued by Leo XIII, 15 May, 1891, on the ... |
Rescripts, PapalPapal Rescripts( Latin re-scribere , "to write back") Rescripts are responses of the pope or a Sacred ... |
ReservationReservationThe restriction in certain cases by a superior of the jurisdiction ordinarily exercised by an ... |
Reserved CasesReserved CasesA term used for sins whose absolution is not within the power of every confessor, but is ... |
Residence, EcclesiasticalEcclesiastical ResidenceA remaining or abiding where one's duties lie or where one's occupation is properly carried on, ... |
Respicius, Tryphon, and NymphaTryphon, Respicius, and NymphaMartyrs whose feast is observed in the Latin Church on 10 November. Tryphon is said to have ... |
Respighi, LorenzoLorenzo RespighiBorn at Cortemaggiore, Province of Piacenza, 7 October, 1824; died at Rome, 10 December, 1889. He ... |
ResponsoriumResponsoriumResponsory, or Respond, a series of verses and responses, usually taken from Holy Scripture and ... |
RestitutionRestitutionRestitution has a special sense in moral theology. It signifies an act of commutative justice ... |
Resurrection of Jesus ChristResurrection of Jesus ChristResurrection is the rising again from the dead, the resumption of life. In this article, we shall ... |
Resurrection, GeneralGeneral ResurrectionResurrection is the rising again from the dead, the resumption of life. The Fourth Lateran ... |
Rethel, AlfredAlfred RethelBorn at Aachen, 1816; died at Düsseldorf, 1859. He combined in a brilliant and forcible ... |
Retreat of the Sacred Heart, Congregation ofRetreat of the Sacred Heart(DAMES DE LA RETRAITE) Originally founded in 1678 under the name of the Institute of Retreat, ... |
RetreatsRetreatsIf we call a retreat a series of days passed in solitude and consecrated to practices of ... |
Retz, Cardinal deCardinal de RetzARCHBISHOP OF PARIS Born at the Château of Montmirail, Oct., 1614; died in Paris, 24 ... |
ReubenRuben (Reuben)(REUBEN.) A proper name which designates in the Bible : (1) a patriarch; (II) a tribe of ... |
Reuchlin, JohannesJohannes Reuchlin( Græcized , Capnion). Celebrated German humanist, b. at Pforzheim, Baden, 22 ... |
Reumont, Alfred vonAlfred von ReumontStatesman and historian, b. at Aachen, 15 August, 1808; d. there, 27 April, 1887. After finishing ... |
Reusens, EdmondEdmond ReusensArcheologist and historian, b. at Wijneghem (Antwerp), 25 April, 1831; d. at Louvain, 25 Dec., ... |
ReussReussName of the two smallest states of the German Confederation, which lie almost in the centre of ... |
RevelationRevelationI. MEANING OF REVELATION Revelation may be defined as the communication of some truth by God ... |
Revelation, Book ofApocalypseApocalypse, from the verb apokalypto , to reveal, is the name given to the last book in the ... |
Revelations, PrivatePrivate RevelationsThere are two kinds of revelations: (1) universal revelations, which are contained in the Bible ... |
RevocationRevocationThe act of recalling or annulling, the reversal of an act, the recalling of a grant, or the making ... |
Revolution, EnglishEnglish Revolution of 1688James II, having reached the climax of his power after the successful suppression of Monmouth's ... |
Revolution, FrenchFrench RevolutionThe last thirty years have given us a new version of the history of the French Revolution, the ... |
Rex Gloriose MartyrumRex Gloriose MartyrumRex Gloriose Martyrum, the hymn at Lauds in the Common of Martyrs (Commune plurimorum ... |
Rex Sempiterne CælitumRex Sempiterne CaelitumThe Roman Breviary hymn for Matins of Sundays and weekdays during the Paschal Time (from ... |
Rey, AnthonyAnthony ReyAn educator and Mexican War chaplain, born at Lyons, 19 March, 1807; died near Ceralvo, Mexico, ... |
Reynolds, WilliamWilliam Reynolds(RAINOLDS, RAYNOLDS, REGINALDUS) Born at Pinhorn near Exeter, about 1544; died at Antwerp, ... |
RhætiaRhaetia(RHÆTORUM). Prefecture Apostolic in Switzerland ; includes in general the district ... |
RhaphanæaRhaphanaeaA titular see in Syria Secunda, suffragan of Apamea. Rhaphanæa is mentioned in ancient ... |
Rheinberger, Joseph GabrielJoseph Gabriel RheinbergerA composer and organist, born at Vaduz, in the Principality of Lichtenstein, Bavaria, 17 March, ... |
Rhenish PalatinateRhenish Palatinate( German Rheinpfalz ). A former German electorate. It derives its name from the title of a ... |
RhesænaRhesaenaA titular see in Osrhoene, suffragan of Edessa. Rhesæna (numerous variations of the name ... |
RhinocoluraRhinocoluraA titular see in Augustamnica Prima, suffragan of Pelusium. Rhinocolura or Rhinocorura was a ... |
RhithymnaRhithymna(RHETHYMNA) A titular see of Crete, suffragan of Gortyna, mentioned by Ptolemy, III, 15, ... |
RhizusRhizus( Rizous .) A titular see of Pontus Polemoniacus suffragan of Neocæsarea, ... |
Rho, GiacomoGiacomo RhoMissionary, born at Milan, 1593; died at Peking 27 April, 1638. He was the son of a noble and ... |
Rhode IslandRhode IslandThe State of Rhode Island and xxyyyk.htm">Providence Plantations, one of the thirteen original ... |
RhodesRhodes(RHODUS) A titular metropolitan of the Cyclades. It is an island opposite to Lycia and ... |
Rhodes, Alexandre DeAlexandre de RhodesA missionary and author, born at Avignon, 15 March, 1591; died at Ispahan, Persia, 5 Nov., 1660. ... |
RhodesiaRhodesiaA British possession in South Africa, bounded on the north and north-west by the Congo Free ... |
RhodiopolisRhodiopolisA titular see of Lycia, suffragan of Myra, called Rhodia by Ptolemy (V, 3) and Stephanus ... |
RhodoRhodoA Christian writer who flourished in the time of Commodus (180-92); he was a native of Asia ... |
RhosusRhosusA titular see in Cilicia Secunda, suffragan to Anazarba. Rhosus or Rhossus was a seaport ... |
Rhymed BiblesRhymed BiblesThe rhymed versions of the Bible are almost entirely collections of the psalms. The oldest ... |
Rhythmical OfficeRhythmical OfficeI. DESCRIPTION, DEVELOPMENT, AND DIVISION By rhythmical office is meant a liturgical horary ... |
Ribadeneira, Pedro dePedro de Ribadeneira(Or RIBADENEYRA and among Spaniards often RIVADENEIRA) Pedro De Ribadeneira was born at ... |
Ribas, Andrés Pérez DeAndres Perez de RibasA pioneer missionary, historian of north-western Mexico; born at Cordova, Spain, 1576; died in ... |
Ribe, Ancient See of, in Denmark (Jutland)Ancient See of Ribe in Denmark (Jutland)(RIPAE, RIPENSIS.) The diocese (29 deaneries, 278 parishes ) consisted of the modern ... |
Ribeirao PretoPreto Ribeirao(DE RIBERAO PRETO) A suffragan see of the Archdiocese of São Paulo , Brazil, ... |
Ribera, Jusepe deJusepe de RiberaCalled also SPAGNOLETTO, L'ESPAGNOLET (the little Spaniard) Painter born at Jativa, 12 Jan., ... |
Ricardus AnglicusRicardus AnglicusRicardus Anglicus, Archdeacon of Bologna, was an English priest who was rector of the law ... |
Riccardi, NicholasNicholas RiccardiA theologian, writer and preacher; born at Genoa, 1585; died at Rome, 30 May, 1639. Physically ... |
Ricci, LorenzoLorenzo RicciGeneral of the Society of Jesus b. at Florence, 2 Aug., 1703; d. at the Castle of Sant' Angelo, ... |
Ricci, MatteoMatteo RicciFounder of the Catholic missions of China, b. at Macerata in the Papal States, 6 Oct. 1552; ... |
Riccioli, Giovanni BattistaGiovanni Battista RiccioliItalian astronomer, b. at Ferrara 17 April, 1598; d. at Bologna 25 June, 1671. He entered the ... |
Rice, Edmund IgnatiusEdmund Ignatius RiceFounder of the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools (better known as "Irish ... |
Rich, St. EdmundSt. Edmund RichArchbishop of Canterbury, England, born 20 November, c. 1180, at Abingdon, six miles from ... |
RichardRichard (Franciscan Preacher)A Friar minor and preacher, appearing in history between 1428 and 1431, whose origin and ... |
Richard de BuryRichard de BuryBishop and bibliophile, b. near Bury St. Edmund's, Suffolk, England, 24 Jan., 1286; d. at ... |
Richard de la Vergne, François-Marie-BenjaminFrancois-Marie-Benjamin Richard de la VergneArchbishop of Paris, born at Nantes, 1 March, 1819; died in Paris, 28 January, 1908. ... |
Richard de Wyche, SaintSt. Richard de WycheBishop and confessor, b. about 1197 at Droitwich, Worcestershire, from which his surname is ... |
Richard Fetherston, BlessedBl. Richard FetherstonPriest and martyr ; died at Smithfield, 30 July, 1540. He was chaplain to Catharine of Aragon ... |
Richard I, King Of EnglandRichard I, King of EnglandRichard I, born at Oxford, 6 Sept, 1157; died at Chaluz, France, 6 April, 1199; was known to ... |
Richard of CirencesterRichard of CirencesterChronicler, d. about 1400. He was the compiler of a chronicle from 447 to 1066, entitled "Speculum ... |
Richard of CornwallRichard of Cornwall(RICHARD RUFUS, RUYS, ROSSO, ROWSE). The dates of his birth and death are unknown, but he ... |
Richard of MiddletownRichard of Middletown(A MEDIA VILLA). Flourished at the end of the thirteenth century, but the dates of his birth ... |
Richard of St. VictorRichard of St. VictorTheologian, native of Scotland, but the date and place of his birth are unknown; d. 1173 and ... |
Richard Thirkeld, BlessedBlessed Richard ThirkeldMartyr ; b. at Coniscliffe, Durham, England ; d. at York, 29 May, 1583. From Queen's College, ... |
Richard Whiting, BlessedBlessed Richard WhitingLast Abbot of Glastonbury and martyr, parentage and date of birth unknown, executed 15 Nov., ... |
Richard, Charles-LouisCharles-Louis RichardTheologian and publicist; b. at Blainville-sur-l'Eau, in Lorraine, April, 1711; d. at Mons, ... |
Richardson, Ven. WilliamVen. William Richardson( Alias Anderson.) Last martyr under Queen Elizabeth; b. according to Challoner at Vales in ... |
Richelieu, Armand-Jean du Plessis, Duke deCardinal RichelieuCardinal ; French statesman, b. in Paris, 5 September, 1585; d. there 4 December 1642. At first ... |
Richmond, Diocese ofRichmond(RICHMONDENSIS.) Suffragan of Baltimore, established 11 July, 1820, comprises the State of ... |
Ricoldo da Monte di CroceRicoldo Da Monte di Croce(PENNINI.) Born at Florence about 1243; d. there 31 October, 1320. After studying in various ... |
Riemenschneider, TillmannRiemenschneiderOne of the most important of Frankish sculptors, b. at Osterode am Harz in or after 1460; d. at ... |
Rienzi, Cola diCola di Rienzi(i.e., NICOLA, son of Lorenzo) A popular tribune and extraordinary historical figure. His ... |
RietiRieti(REATINA). Diocese in Central Italy, immediately subject to the Holy See. The city is ... |
Rievaulx, Abbey ofAbbey of Rievaulx(RIEVALL.) Thurston, Archbishop of York, was very anxious to have a monastery of the newly ... |
Riffel, CasparCaspar RiffelHistorian, b. at Budesheim, Bingen, Germany, 19 Jan., 1807, d. at Mainz, 15 Dec., 1856. He ... |
Rigby, John, SaintSt. John RigbyEnglish martyr ; b. about 1570 at Harrocks Hall, Eccleston, Lancashire; executed at St. Thomas ... |
Rigby, NicholasNicholas RigbyBorn 1800 at Walton near Preston, Lancashire; died at Ugthorpe, 7 September, 1886. At twelve years ... |
RightRightRight, as a substantive (my right, his right), designates the object of justice. When a person ... |
Right of ExclusionRight of Exclusion(Latin Jus Exclusivæ . The alleged competence of the more important Catholic ... |
Right of OptionRight of OptionIn canon law an option is a way of obtaining a benefice or a title, by the choice of the new ... |
Right of Voluntary AssociationRight of Voluntary AssociationI. LEGAL RIGHT A voluntary association means any group of individuals freely united for the ... |
Rimbert, SaintSt. RimbertArchbishop of Bremen - Hamburg, died at Bremen 11 June, 888. It is uncertain whether he was ... |
RiminiRiminiDIOCESE OF RIMINI (ARIMINUM). Suffragan of Ravenna. Rimini is situated near the coast between ... |
Rimini, Council ofCouncil of RiminiThe second Formula of Sirmium (357) stated the doctrine of the Anomoeans, or extreme Arians. ... |
RimouskiRimouskiDIOCESE OF RIMOUSKI (SANCTI GERMANI DE RIMOUSKI) Suffragan of Quebec, comprises the counties of ... |
Ring of the Fisherman, TheThe Ring of FishermanThe earliest mention of the Fisherman's ring worn by the popes is in a letter of Clement IV ... |
RingsRingsAlthough the surviving ancient rings, proved by their devices, provenance, etc., to be of ... |
Rinuccini, Giovanni BattistaGiovanni Battista RinucciniBorn at Rome, 1592; d. at Fermo, 1653; was the son of a Florentine patrician, his mother being a ... |
Rio NegroRio NegroPrefecture Apostolic in Brazil, bounded on the south by a line running westwards from the ... |
Rio, Alexis-FrançoisAlexis-Francois RioFrench writer on art, b. on the Island of Arz, Department of Morbihan, 20 May, 1797; d. 17 June, ... |
RiobambaRiobambaDiocese of (Bolivarensis), suffragan of Quito, Ecuador, erected by Pius IX, 5 January, 1863. ... |
Rioja, Francisco deFrancisco de RiojaA poet, born at Seville, 1583; died at Madrid, 1659. Rioja was a canon in the cathedral at ... |
Ripalda, Juan Martínez deJuan Martinez de RipaldaTheologian, b. at Pamplona, Navarre, 1594; d. at Madrid, 26 April, 1648. He entered the Society ... |
RipatransoneRipatransone(RIPANENSIS). Diocese in Ascoli Piceno, Central Italy. The city is situated on five hills, ... |
Ripon, Marquess ofMarquess of RiponGeorge Frederick Samuel Robinson, K.G., P.C., G.C.S.I., F.R.S., Earl de Grey, Earl of Ripon, ... |
Risby, RichardRichard RisbyBorn in the parish of St. Lawrence, Reading, 1489; executed at Tyburn, London, 20 April, 1534. ... |
Rishanger, WilliamWilliam RishangerChronicler, b. at Rishangles, Suffolk, about ú d. after 1312. He became a Benedictine at ... |
Rishton, EdwardEdward RishtonBorn in Lancashire, 1550; died at Sainte-Ménehould, Lorraine, 29 June, 1585. He was ... |
Rita of Cascia, SaintSt. Rita of CasciaBorn at Rocca Porena in the Diocese of Spoleto , 1386; died at the Augustinian convent of ... |
RitesRitesI. NAME AND DEFINITION Ritus in classical Latin in means primarily, the form and manner of any ... |
Rites in the United StatesRites in the United StatesSince immigration from the eastern portion of Europe and from Asia and Africa set in with ... |
RitschlianismRitschlianismRitschlianism is a peculiar conception of the nature and scope of Christianity, widely held in ... |
Ritter, Joseph IgnatiusJoseph Ignatius RitterHistorian, b. at Schweinitz, Silesia, 12 April, 1787; d. at Breslau, 5 Jan., 1857. He pursued his ... |
RitualRitualThe Ritual ( Rituale Romanum ) is one of the official books of the Roman Rite. It contains all ... |
RitualistsRitualistsThe word "Ritualists" is the term now most commonly employed to denote that advanced section of ... |
Rivington, LukeLuke RivingtonBorn in London, May, 1838; died in London, 30 May, 1899; fourth son of Francis Rivington, a ... |
Rizal, José MercadoJose Mercado RizalFilipino hero, physician, poet, novelist, and sculptor ; b. at Calamba, Province of La Laguna, ... |
Robbers, SevenSeven Robbers(Septem Latrones), martyrs on the Island of Corcyra (Corfu) in the second century. Their ... |
Robbia, Andrea dellaAndrea Della RobbiaNephew, pupil, assistant, and sharer of Luca's secrets, b. at Florence, 1431; d. 1528. It is ... |
Robbia, Lucia di SimoneLucia di Simone RobbiaSculptor, b. at Florence, 1400; d. 1481. He is believed to have studied design with a goldsmith, ... |
Robert Bellarmine, SaintSt. Robert Bellarmine(Also, "Bellarmino"). A distinguished Jesuit theologian, writer, and cardinal, born at ... |
Robert Johnson, BlessedBl. Robert JohnsonBorn in Shropshire, entered the German College, Rome, 1 October, 1571. Ordained priest at ... |
Robert of ArbrisselRobert of ArbrisselItinerant preacher, founder of Fontevrault, b. c. 1047 at Arbrissel (now Arbressec) near ... |
Robert of CourçonRobert of Courcon(DE CURSONE, DE CURSIM, CURSUS, ETC.). Cardinal, born at Kedleston, England ; died at ... |
Robert of GenevaRobert of GenevaAntipope under the name of Clement VII, b. at Geneva, 1342; d. at Avignon, 16 Sept., 1394. He ... |
Robert of JumiègesRobert of JumiegesArchbishop of Canterbury (1051-2). Robert Champart was a Norman monk of St. Ouen at Rouen ... |
Robert of LuzarchesRobert of Luzarches(LUS). Born at Luzarches near Pontoise towards the end of the twelfth century; is said to have ... |
Robert of MelunRobert of Melun(DE MELDUNO; MELIDENSIS; MEIDUNUS). An English philosopher and theologian, b. in England ... |
Robert of Molesme, SaintSt. Robert of MolesmeBorn about the year 1029, at Champagne, France, of noble parents who bore the names of Thierry ... |
Robert of Newminster, SaintSt. Robert of NewminsterBorn in the district of Craven, Yorkshire, probably at the village of Gargrave; died 7 June, 1159. ... |
Robert PullusRobert Pullus(PULLEN, PULLAN, PULLY.) See also ROBERT PULLEN. Cardinal, English philosopher and ... |
Robert, SaintSt. RobertFounder of the Abbey of Chaise-Dieu in Auvergne, b. at Aurilac, Auvergne, about 1000; d. in ... |
Roberts, Saint JohnSt. John RobertsFirst Prior of St. Gregory's, Douai (now Downside Abbey ), b. 1575-6; martyred 10 ... |
Robertson, James BurtonJames Burton RobertsonHistorian, b. in London 15 Nov., 1800; d. at Dublin 14 Feb., 1877, son of Thomas Robertson, a ... |
Robinson, Venerable ChristopherVen. Christopher RobinsonBorn at Woodside, near Westward, Cumberland, date unknown; executed at Carlisle, 19 Aug., 1598. ... |
Robinson, William CallyhanWilliam Callyhan RobinsonJurist and educator, b. 26 July, 1834, at Norwich, Conn.; d. 6 Nov., 1911, at Washington, D.C. ... |
Rocaberti, Juan Tomás deJuan Tomas de RocabertiTheologian, b. of a noble family at Perelada, in Catalina, c. 1624; d. at Madrid 13 June, 1699. ... |
RocamadourRocamadourCommunal chief town of the canton of Gramat, district of Gourdon, Department of Lot, in the ... |
Rocca, AngeloAngelo RoccaFounder of the Angelica Library at Rome, b. at Rocca, now Arecevia, near Ancone, 1545; d. at ... |
Roch, SaintSt. RochBorn at Montpellier towards 1295; died 1327. His father was governor of that city. At his birth ... |
Rochambeau, Jean-Baptiste-DonatienRochambeauMarshal, b. at Vendôme, France, 1 July, 1725; d. at Thoré, 10 May, 1807. At the age ... |
Roche, Alanus de laAlanus de Rupe (Alanus de la Roche)( Sometimes DE LA ROCHE). Born about 1428; died at Zwolle in Holland, 8 September, 1475. ... |
Rochester, Ancient See ofRochester(ROFFA; ROFFENSIS). The oldest and smallest of all the suffragan sees of Canterbury, was ... |
Rochester, Blessed JohnBl. John RochesterPriest and martyr, born probably at Terling, Essex, England, about 1498; died at York, 11 May, ... |
Rochester, Diocese ofRochesterThis diocese, on its establishment by separation from the See of Buffalo, 24 January, 1868, ... |
RochetRochetAn over-tunic usually made of fine white linen (cambric; fine cotton material is also allowed), ... |
Rochette, Désiré RaoulDesire Raoul RochetteUsually known as Raoul-Rochette, a French archeologist, b. at St. Amand (Cher), 9 March, 1789; d. ... |
Rock, DanielDaniel RockAntiquarian and ecclesiologist, b. at Liverpool, 31 August, 1799; d. at Kensington, London, 28 ... |
Rockford, Diocese ofRockford(ROCKFORDIENSIS). Created 23 September, 1908, comprises Jo Daviess, Stephenson, Winnebago, ... |
RockhamptonRockhamptonDiocese in Queensland, Australia. In 1862 Father Duhig visited the infant settlement on the banks ... |
Rococo StyleRococo StyleThis style received its name in the nineteenth century from French émigrés , who ... |
RodezRodez(RUTHENAE) The Diocese of Rodez was united to the Diocese of Cahors by the Concordat of ... |
Rodrigues Ferreira, AlexandreAlexandre Rodrigues FerreiraA Brazilian natural scientist and explorer, b. at Bahia in 1756; d. at Lisbon in 1815. He ... |
Rodriguez, AlonsoAlonso RodriguezBorn at Valladolid, Spain, 1526; died at Seville 21 February, 1616. When twenty years of age he ... |
Rodriguez, JoaoJoao Rodriguez(GIRAM, GIRAO, GIRON, ROIZ). Missionary and author, b. at Alcochete in the Diocese of Lisbon ... |
Rodriguez, Saint AlphonsusSt. Alphonsus Rodriguez(Also Alonso). Born at Segovia in Spain, 25 July, 1532; died at Majorca, 31 October, 1617. ... |
Roe, BartholomewBartholomew Roe(VENERABLE ALBAN). English Benedictine martyr, b. in Suffolk, 1583; executed at Tyburn, 21 ... |
RoermondRoermond(RUBAEMUNDENSIS). Diocese in Holland ; suffragan of Utrecht. It includes the Province of ... |
Rogation DaysRogation DaysDays of prayer, and formerly also of fasting, instituted by the Church to appease God's anger ... |
Roger BaconRoger BaconPhilosopher, surnamed D OCTOR M IRABILIS , b. at Ilchester, Somersetshire, about 1214; d. at ... |
Roger Cadwallador, VenerableVen. Roger CadwalladorEnglish martyr, b. at Stretton Sugwas, near Hereford, in 1568; executed at Leominster, 27 Aug., ... |
Roger of WendoverRoger of WendoverBenedictine monk, date of birth unknown; d. 1236, the first of the great chroniclers of St. ... |
Roger, Bishop of WorcesterRoger, Bishop of WorcesterDied at Tours, 9 August, 1179. A younger son of Robert, Earl of Gloucester, he was educated ... |
Roh, PeterPeter RohBorn at Conthey (Gunthis) in the canton of Valais ( French Switzerland ), 14 August, 1811; d. at ... |
Rohault de FleuryRohault de FleuryA family of French architects and archaeologists of the nineteenth century, of which the most ... |
Rohrbacher, Réné FrançoisRene Francois RohrbacherEcclesiastical historian, b. at Langatte (Langd) in the present Diocese of Metz, 27 September, ... |
Rojas y Zorrilla, Francisco deFrancisco de Rojas y ZorrillaSpanish dramatic poet, b. at Toledo, 4 Oct., 1607; d. 1680. Authentic information regarding the ... |
Rokewode, John GageJohn Gage RokewodeBorn 13 Sept., 1786; died at Claughton Hall, Lancashire, 14 Oct., 1842. He was the fourth son of ... |
RolducRolduc(RODA DUCIS, also Roda, Closterroda or Hertogenrade). Located in S. E. Limburg, Netherlands. ... |
Rolfus, HermannHermann RolfusCatholic educationist, b. at Freiburg, 24 May, 1821; d. at Buhl, near Offenburg, 27 October, ... |
Rolle de Hampole, RichardRichard Rolle de HampoleSolitary and writer, b. at Thornton, Yorkshire, about 1300; d. at Hampole, 29 Sept., 1349. The ... |
Rollin, CharlesCharles RollinBorn in Paris, 1661; died there, 1741. The son of a cutler, intended to follow his father's ... |
Rolls SeriesRolls SeriesA collection of historical materials of which the general scope is indicated by its official ... |
Rolph, ThomasThomas RolphSurgeon, b. 1800; d. at Portsmouth, 17 Feb., 1858. He was a younger son of Dr. Thomas Rolph and ... |
Roman CatacombsRoman CatacombsThis subject will be treated under seven heads: I. Position; II. History; III. Inscriptions; IV. ... |
Roman CatechismRoman CatechismThis catechism differs from other summaries of Christian doctrine for the instruction of the ... |
Roman CatholicRoman CatholicA qualification of the name Catholic commonly used in English-speaking countries by those ... |
Roman Catholic Relief BillRoman Catholic Relief BillIN ENGLAND With the accession of Queen Elizabeth (1558) commenced the series of legislative ... |
Roman Christian Cemeteries, EarlyEarly Roman Christian CemeteriesThis article treats briefly of the individual catacomb cemeteries in the vicinity of Rome. For ... |
Roman CollegesRoman CollegesThis article treats of the various colleges in Rome which have been founded under ... |
Roman CongregationsThe Roman CongregationsCertain departments have been organized by the Holy See at various times to assist it in the ... |
Roman CuriaRoman CuriaStrictly speaking, the ensemble of departments or ministries which assist the sovereign pontiff ... |
Roman ProcessionalRoman ProcessionalStrictly speaking it might be said that the Processional has no recognized place in the Roman ... |
Roman Rite, TheThe Roman Rite( Ritus romanus ). The Roman Rite is the manner of celebrating the Holy Sacrifice, ... |
Romanos Pontifices, ConstitutioConsitutio Romanos PontificesThe restoration by Pius IX, 29 Sept. 1850, by letters Apostolic "Universalis ecclesiæ" of ... |
Romanos, SaintSt. RomanosSurnamed ho melodos and ho theorrhetor , poet of the sixth century. The only authority for ... |
Romans, Epistle to theEpistle To the RomansThis subject will be treated under the following heads: I. The Roman Church and St. Paul; II. ... |
Romanus, PopePope RomanusOf this pope very little is known with certainty, not even the date of his birth nor the exact ... |
Romanus, SaintsSaints Romanus(1) A Roman martyr Romanus is mentioned in the "Liber Pontificalis" (ed. Duchesne, I, 155) ... |
RomeRomeThe significance of Rome lies primarily in the fact that it is the city of the pope. The Bishop ... |
Rome, University ofUniversity of RomeThe University of Rome must be distinguished from the "Studium Generale apud Curiam", established ... |
Romero, JuanJuan RomeroMissionary and Indian linguist, b. in the village of Machena, Andalusia, Spain, 1559; d. at ... |
Romuald, SaintSt. RomualdBorn at Ravenna, probably about 950; died at Val-di-Castro, 19 June, 1027. St. Peter Damian, his ... |
Romulus AugustulusRomulus AugustulusDeposed in the year 476, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire. His reign was purely ... |
Ronan, SaintSt. RonanThere are twelve Irish saints bearing the name of Ronan commemorated in the "Martyrology of ... |
Ronsard, Pierre dePierre de RonsardFrench poet, b. 2 (or 11) Sept., 1524, at the Château de la Poissonniere, near ... |
RoodRood(Anglo-Saxon Rod, or Rode, "cross"), a term, often used to signify the True Cross itself, ... |
Roothaan, Johann PhilippJohann Philipp RoothaanTwenty-first General of the Society of Jesus , b. at Amsterdam, 23 November, 1785; d. at Rome, ... |
Roper, WilliamWilliam RoperBiographer of St. Thomas More, born 1496; died 4 January, 1578. Both his father and mother ... |
Rorate CoeliRorate Coeli(Vulgate, text), the opening words of Isaiah 45:8 . The text is used frequently both at Mass and ... |
Rosa, SalvatoreSalvatore Rosa(Also spelled SALVATOR; otherwise known as RENNELLA, or ARENELLA, from the place of his birth). ... |
Rosalia, SaintSt. RosaliaHermitess, greatly venerated at Palermo and in the whole of Sicily of which she in patroness. ... |
Rosary, Breviary Hymns of theBreviary Hymns of the RosaryThe proper office granted by Leo XIII (5 August, 1888) to the feast contains four hymns ... |
Rosary, Confraternity of theConfraternity of the Holy RosaryIn accordance with the conclusion of the article ROSARY no sufficient evidence is forthcoming to ... |
Rosary, Feast of the HolyFeast of the Holy RosaryApart from the signal defeat of the Albigensian heretics at the battle of Muret in 1213 which ... |
Rosary, SeraphicFranciscan Crown( Or Seraphic Rosary.) A Rosary consisting of seven decades in commemoration of the seven ... |
Rosary, TheThe RosaryPlease see our How to Recite the Holy Rosary sheet in PDF format, and feel free to copy and ... |
Rosate, Alberico deAlberico de Rosate(Or ROSCIATE). Jurist, date of birth unknown; died in 1354. He was bom in the village of ... |
RoscelinRoscelinRoscelin, a monk of Compiègne, was teaching as early as 1087. He had contact with ... |
RoscommonRoscommonCapital of County Roscommon, Ireland ; owes origin and name to a monastery founded by St. Coman ... |
Rose of Lima, SaintSt. Rose of LimaVirgin, patroness of America, born at Lima, Peru 20 April, 1586; died there 30 August, 1617. ... |
Rose of Viterbo, SaintSt. Rose of ViterboVirgin, born at Viterbo, 1235; died 6 March, 1252. The chronology of her life must always remain ... |
Rose WindowRose WindowA circular window, with mullions and traceries generally radiating from the centre, and filled ... |
RoseaRoseaA titular see. The official catalogue of the Roman Curia mentioned formerly a titular see of ... |
RoseauRoseau(ROSENSIS). Diocese ; suffragan of Port of Spain, Trinidad, B.W.I. The different islands of ... |
Rosecrans, William StarkeWilliam Starke RosecransWilliam Born at Kingston, Ohio, U.S.A. 6 Sept., 1819; died near Redondo California, 11 March, ... |
Roseline, SaintSt. Roseline(Rossolina.) Born at Château of Arcs in eastern Provence, 1263; d. 17 January, 1329. ... |
RosenauRosenau( Hungarian ROZSNYÓ; Latin ROSNAVIENSIS). Diocese in Hungary, suffragan of Eger, ... |
Rosh HashanahFeast of TrumpetsThe first day of Tishri (October), the seventh month of the Hebrew year. Two trumpets are ... |
RosicruciansRosicruciansThe original appelation of the alleged members of the occult-cabalistic- theosophic "Rosicrucian ... |
Roskilde, Ancient See of, in DenmarkAncient See of Roskilde in Denmark(ROSCHILDIA, ROSKILDENSIS.) Suffragan to Hamburg, about 991-1104, to Lund, 1104-1536. The ... |
Roskoványi, AugustAugust RoskovanyiBishop of Neutra in Hungary, doctor of philosophy and theology, b. at Szenna in the County ... |
Rosmini and RosminianismRosmini and RosminianismAntonio Rosmini Serbati, philosopher, and founder of the Institute of Charity, born 24 March, ... |
RosminiansRosminiansThe Institute of Charity, or, officially, Societas a charitate nuncupata , is a religious ... |
RossRoss(ROSSENSIS). Diocese in Ireland. This see was founded by St. Fachtna, and the place-name ... |
Ross, School ofSchool of RossThe School of Ross &151; now called Ross-Carbery, but formerly Ross-Ailithir from the large ... |
RossanoRossano(ROSSANENSIS). Archdiocese in Calabria, province of Cosenza, Southern Italy. The city is ... |
Rosselino, Antonio di Matteo di DomenicoAntonio di Matteo di Domenico RosselinoThe youngest of five brothers, sculptors and stone cutters, family name Gamberelli (1427-78). He ... |
Rosselino, BernardoBernardo Rosselino(Properly BERNARDO DI MATTEO GAMBARELLI.) B. at Florence, 1409; d. 1464. Rosselino occupies ... |
Rosselli, CosimoCosimo Rosselli(LORENZO DI FILIPPO). Italian fresco painter, b. at Florence, 1439; d. there in 1507. The ... |
Rossi, Bernardo deBernardo de Rossi(DE RUBEIS, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO BERNARDO MARIA). Theologian and historian; b. at Cividale del ... |
Rossi, Giovanni Battista deGiovanni Battista de RossiA distinguished Christian archaeologist , best known for his work in connection with the Roman ... |
Rossi, PellegrinoPellegrino RossiPublicist, diplomat, economist, and statesman, b. at Carrara, Italy, 13 July, 1787; assassinated ... |
Rossini, Gioacchino AntonioGioacchino Antonio RossiniBorn 29 February, 1792, at Pesaro in the Romagna; died 13 November, 1868, at Passy, near Paris. ... |
Rostock, Sebastian vonSebastian von RostockBishop of Breslau, b. at Grottkau, Silesia, 24 Aug. 1607; d. at Breslau, 9 June, 1671. He ... |
Rostock, University ofUniversity of RostockLocated in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, founded in the year 1419 through the united efforts of Dukes John ... |
RoswithaHroswithaA celebrated nun -poetess of the tenth century, whose name has been given in various forms, ... |
Rota, Sacra RomanaSacra Romana RotaIn the Constitution "Sapienti Consilio" (29 June, 1908), II, 2, Pins X re-established the Sacra ... |
Roth, HeinrichHeinrich RothMissionary in India and Sanskrit scholar, b. of illustrious parentage at Augsburg, 18 December, ... |
Rothe, DavidDavid RotheBishop of Ossory ( Ireland ), b. at Kilkenny in 1573, of a distinguished family ; d. 20 ... |
RottenburgRottenburg(ROTTENBURGENSIS). Diocese ; suffragan of the ecclesiastical Province of the Upper Rhine. It ... |
RotuliRotuliRotuli, i.e. rolls — in which a long narrow strip of papyrus or parchment, written on one ... |
Rouen, Archdiocese ofRouen(ROTHOMAGENSIS) Revived by the Concordat of 1802 with the Sees of Bayeux, Evreux, and ... |
Rouen, Synods ofSynods of RouenThe first synod is generally believed to have been held by Archbishop Saint-Ouen about 650. ... |
Rouquette, AdrienAdrien RouquetteBorn in Louisiana in 1813, of French parentage; died as a missionary among the Choctaw Indians ... |
Rousseau, Jean-BaptisteJean-Baptiste RousseauFrench poet, b. in Paris, 16 April 1670; d. at La Genette, near Brussels, 17 May, 1741. ... |
Rovezzano, Benedetto daBenedetto Da RovezzanoSculptor and architect, b. in 1490, either at Rovezzano, near Florence, or, according to some ... |
Rowsham, StephenStephen RowshamA native of Oxfordshire, entered Oriel College, Oxford, in 1572. He took orders in the English ... |
Royal Declaration, TheThe Royal DeclarationThis is the name most commonly given to the solemn repudiation of Catholicity which, in ... |
Royer-Collard, Pierre-PaulPierre-Paul Royer-CollardPhilosopher and French politician, b. at Sompuis (Marne), 21 June, 1763; d. at ... |
Ruadhan, SaintSt. RuadhanOne of the twelve "Apostles of Erin" ; died at the monastery of Lorrha, County Tipperary, ... |
RubenRuben (Reuben)(REUBEN.) A proper name which designates in the Bible : (1) a patriarch; (II) a tribe of ... |
Rubens, Peter PaulPeter Paul RubensEminent Flemish painter, b. at Siegen, Westphalia, 28 June, 1577; d. at Antwerp, 30 May, 1640. ... |
RubricsRubricsI. IDEA Among the ancients, according to Columella, Vitruvius, and Pliny, the word rubrica , ... |
Rubruck, WilliamWilliam Rubruck(Also called William of Rubruck and less correctly Ruysbrock, Ruysbroek, and Rubruquis), ... |
Rudolf of FuldaRudolf of FuldaChronicler, d. at Fulda, 8 March, 862. In the monastery of Fulda Rudolf entered the ... |
Rudolf of HabsburgRudolf of HabsburgGerman king, b. 1 May 1218; d. at Speyer, 15 July, 1291. He was the son of Albert IV, the founder ... |
Rudolf of RüdesheimRudolf of RudesheimBishop of Breslau, b. at Rüdesheim on the Rhine, about 1402; d. at Breslau in Jan., 1482. ... |
Rudolf von EmsRudolf von Ems[Hohenems in Austria ]. A Middle High German epic poet of the thirteenth century. Almost ... |
Rueckers, Family ofFamily of RueckersFamous organ and piano-forte builders of Antwerp. Hans Rueckers, the founder, lived in ... |
Ruffini, PaoloPaolo RuffiniPhysician and mathematician, b. at Valentano in the Duchy of Castro, 3 Sept., 1765; d. at Modena, ... |
Rufford AbbeyRufford AbbeyA monastery of the Cistercian Order, situated on the left bank of the Rainworth Water, about ... |
Rufina, SaintsSts. RufinaThe present Roman Martyrology records saints of this name on the following days: (1) On ... |
Rufinus, SaintSaints RufinusThe present Roman Martyrology records eleven saints named Rufinus: (1) On 28 February, a ... |
Rufus, SaintSaints RufusThe present Roman Martyrology records ten saints of this name. Historical mention is made of ... |
Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza, Juan deJuan de Ruiz de Alarcon y MendozaSpanish dramatic poet, b. at Mexico City, about 1580; d. at Madrid, 4 August, 1639. He received ... |
Ruiz de Montoya, AntonioAntonio Ruiz de MontoyaOne of the most distinguished pioneers of the original Jesuit mission in Paraguay, and a ... |
Ruiz de Montoya, DiegoDiego Ruiz de MontoyaTheologian, b. at Seville, 1562; d. there 15 March, 1632. He entered the Society of Jesus in ... |
Rule of Faith, TheThe Rule of FaithThe word rule ( Latin regula , Gr. kanon ) means a standard by which something can be ... |
Rule of St. AugustineRule of St. AugustineThe title, Rule of Saint Augustine , has been applied to each of the following documents: ... |
Rule of St. BenedictRule of St. BenedictThis work holds the first place among monastic legislative codes, and was by far the most ... |
RumaniaRumaniaA kingdom in the Balkan Peninsula, situated between the Black Sea, the Danube, the Carpathian ... |
Rumohr, Karl FriedrichKarl Friedrich RumohrArt historian, b. at Dresden, 1785; d. there, 1843. He became a Catholic in 1804. He was ... |
Rupe, Alanus deAlanus de Rupe (Alanus de la Roche)( Sometimes DE LA ROCHE). Born about 1428; died at Zwolle in Holland, 8 September, 1475. ... |
Rupert, SaintSt. Rupert(Alternative forms, Ruprecht, Hrodperht, Hrodpreht, Roudbertus, Rudbertus, Robert, Ruprecht). ... |
RusaddirRusaddirA titular see of Mauritania Tingitana. Rusaddir is a Phoenician settlement whose name ... |
RusicadeRusicadeA titular see of Numidia. It is mentioned by Ptolemy (IV, 3), Mela (I, 33), Pliny (V, 22), ... |
RuspeRuspeTitular see of Byzacena in Africa, mentioned only by Ptolemy (IV, 3) and the "Tabula" of ... |
Russell, CharlesCharles Russell(BARON RUSSELL OF KILLOWEN). Born at Newry, Ireland, 10 November, 1832; died in London, 10 ... |
Russell, Charles WilliamCharles William RussellBorn at Killough, Co. Down, 14 May, 1812; died at Dublin 26 Feb., 1880. He was descended from the ... |
Russell, RichardRichard RussellBishop of Vizéu in Portugal, b. in Berkshire, 1630; d. at Vizéu, 15 Nov., 1693. He ... |
RussiaRussiaGEOGRAPHY Russia ( Rossiiskaia Imperiia; Russkoe Gosudarstvo ) comprises the greater part of ... |
Russia, The Religion ofThe Religion of RussiaA. The Origin of Russian Christianity There are two theories in regard to the early Christianity ... |
Russian Language and LiteratureRussian Language and LiteratureThe subject will be treated under the following heads, viz. RUSSIAN LANGUAGE; ANCIENT POPULAR ... |
Rusticus of Narbonne, SaintSt. Rusticus of NarbonneBorn either at Marseilles or at Narbonnaise, Gaul; died 26 Oct., 461. According to biographers, ... |
Ruth, Book ofBook of RuthOne of the proto-canonical writings of the Old Testament, which derives its name from the heroine ... |
Ruthenian RiteRuthenian RiteThere is, properly speaking, no separate and distinct rite for the Ruthenians, but inasmuch as ... |
RutheniansRuthenians(Ruthenian and Russian: Rusin , plural Rusini ) A Slavic people from Southern Russia, ... |
Rutter, HenryHenry Rutter( vere BANISTER) Born 26 Feb., 1755; died 17 September, 1838, near Dodding Green, ... |
Ruvo and BitontoRuvo and Bitonto(RUBENSIS ET BITUNTINENSIS) Diocese in the Province of Bari, Aquileia, Southern Italy. Ruvo, ... |
Ruysbroeck, Blessed JohnBlessed John RuysbroeckSurnamed the Admirable Doctor, and the Divine Doctor, undoubtedly the foremost of the Flemish ... |
Ruysch, JohnJohn RuyschAstronomer, cartographer, and painter, born at Utrecht about 1460; died at Cologne, 1533. Little ... |
Ryan, Father Abram J.Father Abram J. RyanThe poet-priest of the South, born at Norfolk, Virginia, 15 August, 1839; died at Louisville, ... |
Ryan, Patrick JohnPatrick John RyanSixth Bishop and second Archbishop of Philadelphia, b. At Thurles, County Tipperary, ... |
Ryder, Henry Ignatius DudleyHenry Ignatius Dudley RyderEnglish Oratorian priest and controversialist, b. 3 Jan., 1837; d. at Edgbaston, Birmingham, 7 ... |
Ryken, Theodore JamesTheodore James RykenKnown as B ROTHER F RANCIS X AVIER , founder of the Xaverian Brothers. Born at Elshout, ... |
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